Warfare during the age of Napoleon was defined by several parameters: the effective range of a smoothbore musket (50-100 yards); the effective range of a cannon ball (1,000 yards); the speed of marching men and charging horses; the morale, discipline, and training of men required to stand in lines or march in columns under fire; and the ability of commanders to inspire troops and deploy them effectively.
The basic problem was how to take a position held be the enemy and the basic answer was to March at them in a dense column of infantry carrying muskets fitted with bayonets. If the column had the will and strength to march up to the enemy and keep coming, the defender would normally break a withdraw, conceding victory. Cannons fired iron balls at both defenders and marching columns, attempting to weaken morale before the moment of contact. Infantry in defensive lines fired volleys at the columns to kill officers and men, and weaken the attacker’s morale. Skirmishers out front of both sides tried to do the same. Cavalry hovered on the wings to charge in against disorganized troops and ride them down.
For most of the Napoleonic era France did everything better than its opponents. It’s cannon were the best served; its infantry had the best morale and marched faster, and its columns were rarely stopped; its cavalry was the most audacious; and its leaders were the most effective in battlefield maneuvers. By 1813, however, the other European powers had learned a great deal, had found competent leader of their own, and had a manpower advantage that was wearing down the French. At Waterloo in 1815, British lines of volley firing infantry stopped the French massed columns while the Prussian columns hit the French flank; together they brought the Napoleonic era to an end.
